The Complexity of Indigenous Alliances During the American Revolution
By Samantha Saba, B.A. in History and English, Christopher Newport University (’26), and Sheri Shuck-Hall, PhD, Professor of History, Christopher Newport University
When we picture an American Revolutionary, who comes to mind? Perhaps a rugged militiaman taking up arms for liberty, or a disgruntled British colonist demanding political representation. While these images represent one familiar demographic of freedom fighters, there is another group that contributed just as much to the making of the nation—one whose stories remain far less known to the public. Native Americans were pivotal actors in the American Revolution, yet the accounts of individual Indigenous leaders, strategists, and soldiers who distinguished themselves are often left out of standard narratives.
From the Oneida in the Northeast to the Pamunkey in Virginia and the Muscogee Creeks in the South, Native Americans played significant roles on both sides of the conflict. Indigenous allies were ultimately instrumental in forging the success of the Revolution. These nations found themselves in the middle of a complex geopolitical chessboard as the British Empire and domestic revolutionaries squared off to determine the continent’s future. In the heat of this conflict, Indigenous individuals rose to defend their communities, aid their chosen allies, and shape the war’s outcome. Serving as spies, diplomatic intermediaries, soldiers, and logisticians, Native Americans were active agents of change whose alliances were fiercely contested by European and American powers. These are their stories.[1]
Am I My Brother’s Keeper? Robert Mursh and the Intersections of Faith and Loyalty
Alignment, allegiance, and identity were complex variables for Native Americans facing existential choices during the American Revolution. The experiences of Robert Mursh (also documented as Mush or Marsh) illustrate how personal upbringing and local institutional ties directly shaped wartime decisions. A Pamunkey Indian living in the Chesapeake region of Virginia, Mursh’s life was molded by more than a century of evolving legal and social interactions between his tribe and European colonists.
Under the terms of regional peace agreements, including the Treaty of Middle Plantation, Pamunkey families periodically sent young boys to Williamsburg to be educated in English customs and languages. Mursh was one of these students; he was Christianized and educated at the Brafferton School, the Indian department established at the College of William & Mary. Through his time at the Brafferton and his subsequent connections within colonial Christian networks, Mursh was directly exposed to public political discourse. The relationships he formed with local Virginians heavily influenced his decision to enlist in the Continental Army, taking up arms alongside the revolutionaries.[2]
Serving within the 15th Virginia Regiment, Mursh marched through several of the war’s most grueling campaigns, seeing action at the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. In May 1780, during the catastrophic Siege of Charleston, Mursh was captured by British forces and held as a prisoner of war for fourteen months. Following his release, he immediately re-enlisted, returning to active duty in time to fight at the decisive Siege of Yorktown in 1781, where he witnessed the surrender of the British army.
Following the conclusion of hostilities, Mursh settled with his Pamunkey wife, Elizabeth, and became a prominent Christian minister, traveling to share his faith with neighboring Native communities. The details of Mursh’s military career are preserved in comprehensive pension applications and family records housed within the National Archives, demonstrating that his institutional service was recognized and compensated by the federal government. His journey stands as a powerful testament to how relational ties and educational environments guided the difficult choices of individual soldiers.[3]
Geopolitical Sovereignty: Alexander McGillivray and the Creek Nation
While the United States emerged victorious from its war for independence, the conclusion of the conflict brought starkly divergent outcomes for the native populations of the American South. Alexander McGillivray (1750–1793), known within his nation as Hoboi-Hili-Miko, was born in present-day Alabama to a wealthy Scottish trader and an influential woman of the Muscogee Creek Wind Clan. Educated in Charleston, McGillivray navigated the outbreak of the American Revolution by prioritizing the economic independence and territorial security of the Creek Confederacy.[4]
When open war broke out, McGillivray aligned his interests with Great Britain, receiving a commission as a colonel in the British Army. He utilized British trade goods and diplomatic channels to rally portions of the Upper Creek towns to combat the expansionist American frontiersmen. However, this alliance fractured internal tribal cohesion; McGillivray’s pro-British policies sparked intense friction and suspicion among the American-allied Lower Creeks. Following the British retreat in 1783, the Creek nation faced immediate, synchronized territorial pressure from both the newly formed United States and Spanish authorities in Florida.
In response, McGillivray demonstrated masterful diplomatic skill by playing these rival imperial powers against each other. In 1784, he negotiated the Treaty of Pensacola with Spain, establishing a lucrative commercial monopoly for British trading firms while securing Spanish guarantees for Creek territory. McGillivray used this international leverage to consolidate his personal position as a principal chief of the Creek nation.[5]
Throughout the late 1780s and early 1790s, McGillivray continued to manage regional diplomacy through a sequence of complex treaties with both European officials and the Washington administration. While his diplomatic maneuvers successfully delayed large-scale American encroachment for a time, subsequent agreements required the cession of portions of ancestral Creek hunting grounds. To escape internal political opposition and tribal prosecution, McGillivray spent his final months under Spanish protection in Pensacola, where he passed away in 1793. His complex career highlights the high-stakes, gray-area diplomacy that Southern Indigenous leaders were forced to navigate to preserve their national boundaries.[6]
Kinship and Coalition: Molly Brant and the Iroquois League
During the imperial crisis, female Indigenous leaders wielded immense political authority, making decisions that profoundly affected the strategic trajectories of their nations. Konwatsi’tsiaienni, widely known by her English name as Molly Brant, was a high-ranking Mohawk clan matron and an influential diplomat within the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) Confederacy. She was the elder sister of the prominent Mohawk war chief Thayendanegea (Joseph Brant) and the consort of Sir William Johnson, the British Superintendent of Indian Affairs, with whom she managed a vast estate and raised eight children in upstate New York.[7]
Brant’s upbringing placed her at a cultural crossroads, allowing her to serve as a vital political mediator between the Iroquois League and the British Crown. As the imperial crisis escalated into war, Brant utilized her traditional authority as a clan matron to sway the Iroquois Grand Council, successfully convincing her brother Joseph and four of the six Iroquois nations to declare open allegiance to the British Empire. Recognizing her unmatched political clout, British official Daniel Claus observed:
“One word from her goes further with them than a thousand words from any white man without exception.”[8]
Throughout the conflict, Brant transformed her home into a critical intelligence hub, sheltering fleeing Loyalists, feeding frontier units, and smuggling vital munitions to British forces. Her actions were driven by a sophisticated understanding of kinship obligations and a realistic calculation that a British victory offered the most reliable defense against the aggressive expansion of American agricultural settlers.
However, the war shattered the historic cohesion of the Iroquois Confederacy, pitting brother against brother. Following the American victory, the Mohawk nation paid a catastrophic price for its loyalty to the Crown; their villages were systematically destroyed by the Sullivan Expedition, and they were forced to permanently abandon their ancestral homelands for exile in Ontario, Canada. Despite these displacement losses, Brant’s fierce defense of her nation’s sovereignty cemented her legacy as an elite diplomat of the revolutionary era.[9]
Shadows of the Tidewater: The Unwritten Service of John Bass
While high-ranking diplomats dominate historical records, many Indigenous soldiers served in the ranks of the Continental Army whose personal backgrounds remain largely obscured by time. One such figure was John Bass (alternatively recorded as James Bass), a citizen of the Nansemond nation—one of the historic tribes belonging to the wider Powhatan Confederacy of Tidewater Virginia. While the Nansemond community navigated internal divisions regarding the war, Bass chose to actively enlist with the local Patriot forces.[10]
Bass marched with regional militia units during the crucial early campaigns in Virginia. Most notably, he fought at the Battle of Great Bridge in December 1775, contributing to a strategic victory that successfully expelled the Royal Governor, Lord Dunmore, and secured southeastern Virginia for the revolutionary cause.
While specific archival details regarding Bass’s daily life outside of his military service are sparse, his contributions were formally codified by his contemporaries. In 1832, more than half a century after his enlistment, the federal government officially awarded Bass a military pension. His application was authenticated by prominent local citizens—including J.Y. Green, James Mosely, James Billington, and James Patterson—who stepped forward as character witnesses to verify his honorable wartime service under oath.
Bass belonged to a faction of the Nansemond nation that had adopted English agricultural styles and Christianity, a cultural shift that provided unique legal opportunities within the early American republic. However, this religious and cultural adaptation did not shield the Nansemond people from systematic discrimination and ongoing land loss in post-war Virginia. The surviving fragments of Bass’s pension application stand as a testament to the thousands of unheralded Indigenous servicemen who directly built the foundations of American independence.[11]
Saving Valley Forge: Polly Cooper and Oneida Humanitarianism
Polly Cooper was an influential Oneida woman whose actions during the dark winter of the war illustrated the profound humanitarian commitments of her nation. While their Haudenosaunee brethren—including the Mohawks—aligned with the British, the Oneida Nation chose to honor their long-standing covenants with local colonists and missionaries by formally declaring allegiance to the United States. This decision fractured the ancient Iroquois Confederacy, but the Oneida remained steadfast in their commitment to the Patriot cause.[12]
During the legendary winter of 1777–1778, General George Washington’s Continental Army was on the brink of total collapse at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. Plagued by disease, freezing temperatures, and systemic supply failures, the starving army faced imminent dissolution. Responding to the crisis, the Oneida Nation organized a grueling relief expedition, carrying tons of white corn and supplies over 250 miles of winter terrain directly to the valley camp.
Polly Cooper was a central figure in this relief mission. Upon her arrival, she recognized that the starving American soldiers were attempting to eat the raw corn uncooked, which caused severe illness. Cooper stepped forward to manage the camp kitchens, teaching the troops how to properly hull, boil, and prepare the corn into nutritious, digestible food.
When the campaign concluded, Cooper steadfastly refused to accept any monetary compensation from the Continental Army, stating that it was her duty to aid friends in distress. In a gesture of profound gratitude, Martha Washington and the officers’ wives presented Cooper with a fine black wool shawl. This garment became an invaluable heirloom within the Oneida nation, serving as an enduring material symbol of alliance, kindness, and mutual survival. Today, the legendary Polly Cooper shawl remains preserved and displayed as a treasure at the Oneida Nation Cultural Center.[13]
Tragic Irony on the Frontier: Abraham Nimham and the Stockbridge Militia
The price of patriotism was often steep, as demonstrated by the tragic battlefield sacrifices of the Stockbridge-Mohican nation. Abraham Nimham was a respected leader within the Stockbridge community and the son of Daniel Nimham, the last great sachem of the historic Wappinger people of the Hudson Valley. Driven by a desire to secure legal recognition of their ancestral lands and protect their tribal sovereignty from encroaching New York landlords, both father and son chose to align their elite warriors with the Continental Army.[14]
Commissioned as officers by George Washington, the Nimhams organized and commanded the Stockbridge Militia, an elite scouting unit that fought alongside Patriot forces throughout the northern campaigns. The unit was renowned for its exceptional tracking skills, endurance, and battlefield discipline. However, the fortunes of war turned tragic on August 31, 1778, during the Battle of Kingsbridge (located in the modern-day Bronx, New York). While conducting reconnaissance operations, Nimham’s scouting unit was ambushed and surrounded by a superior force of Loyalist cavalry and Hessian mercenaries under the command of Col. John Graves Simcoe. Though fighting valiantly in hand-to-hand combat against overwhelming odds, nearly forty Stockbridge warriors—including both Abraham and his father Daniel—were killed on the field.
The story of the Stockbridge Militia concludes with a bitter historical irony. Despite laying down their lives for the cause of American liberty, the surviving Mohican community was denied the security they had fought to protect. Following the Treaty of Paris, the new American government failed to honor its wartime promises of land preservation. The Stockbridge-Mohicans were systematically displaced, pushed entirely off their ancestral Hudson Valley lands and forced into successive migrations westward. Their legacy endures as a reminder of the steep human cost of the war and the complex debts owed to the nation’s earliest defenders.[15]
Restoring Indigenous Narratives to Public Memory
The military, diplomatic, and social history of the American Revolution remains fundamentally incomplete without a thorough evaluation of the active participation of Indigenous nations. Native American choices throughout the conflict were dictated by structured, long-term strategies designed to protect tribal sovereignty, preserve ancestral land bases, and fulfill deep-seated kinship obligations.
The experiences of leaders like Molly Brant and Alexander McGillivray, alongside soldiers and logisticians like Robert Mursh, John Bass, Polly Cooper, and Abraham Nimham, demonstrate that the Revolutionary War was a complex, continental struggle for self-determination. Rather than acting as passive observers or tragic victims of expansion, these individuals navigated the crises of imperial collapse with diplomatic nuance and military skill. Documenting their accounts transforms the public understanding of the Revolutionary era, reframing the conflict from a localized colonial rebellion into a global, multicultural war for independence. To explore these diverse Indigenous narratives and view the material culture of the conflict firsthand, visitors are encouraged to tour the galleries at the American Revolution Museum at Yorktown.[16]
About the Author
Samantha Saba graduated from Christopher Newport University in 2026, earning a double major in History and English, with minors in Political Science and Middle Eastern/North African Studies. She was awarded a graduate fellowship to American University to pursue an M.A. in Public History. This exhibition script was developed in professional collaboration with Catherine Van Dyke at the Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation and benefited from the research guidance of Dr. Pat Hannum.
Notes
- Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 26–32.
- Buck Woodard, “Students of the Brafferton Indian School,” in Building the Brafferton: The Founding, Funding, and Legacy of America’s Indian School (Williamsburg, VA: Muscarelle Museum of Art, 2019), 130.
- Robert Mursh Archive File, Revolutionary War Pension and Bounty-Land Warrant Application Files, Record Group 15, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; see also The Treaty of Middle Plantation, 1677 records.
- George Milne, “McGillivray, Alexander (1750–1793) Creek Chief,” in Encyclopedia of Revolutionary America (New York: Infobase Learning, 2010), 537–538.
- John Burch, “McGillivray, Alexander (ca. 1750–1793),” in Imperialism and Expansionism in American History (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2016), 415–416.
- Colin G. Calloway, “Courting McGillivray,” in The Indian World of George Washington (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 346–377.
- Peggy Dymond Leavey, Molly Brant: Mohawk Loyalist and Diplomat (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2015), 78–79.
- Letter from Daniel Claus to General Frederick Haldimand, 1779, cited in Leavey, Molly Brant, 89.
- Leavey, Molly Brant, 87, 102–105.
- Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas’s People: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia Through Four Centuries (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 84–85, 141.
- Pension Application for John Bass, S1745, Southern Campaigns Revolutionary War Statements and Rosters, transcribed by Will Graves, https://revwarapps.org/s1745.pdf.
- Colin G. Calloway, The Indian World of George Washington: The First President, the First Americans, and the Birth of the Nation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018).
- Oneida Nation Curatorial Files, Oneida Nation Cultural Center, Oneida, New York.
- Colin G. Calloway, “Stockbridge: The New England Patriots,” in The American Revolution in Indian Country (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 85–107.
- Ibid., 108–112.
- Institutional Gallery Profiles, Department of Curatorial Interpretation, Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation, https://www.jyfmuseums.org/.
