Parker Watson, B.A. in History and Museum Studies, Christopher Newport University
Sheri Shuck-Hall, Ph.D. Professor of History, Christopher Newport University
Oysters are an integral part of the oceans that surround us. They are especially important in the Chesapeake Bay as they filter and clean the water, and their reefs prevent coastal erosion and protect estuaries. Oysters are essential for the health of the bay’s ecosystem and are a source of food for the people of the mid-Atlantic and beyond. We have been eating oysters for generations. In fact, today’s methods of harvesting oysters are more like those practiced by Indigenous peoples that inhabited the Chesapeake Bay area before European settlement. Featuring artifacts from the Watermen’s Museum in Yorktown and archival images from the Mariners’ Museum in Newport News, Virginia, this exhibit will explore oyster harvesting by diverse people throughout time in the Chesapeake Bay and discuss how we can help preserve the ecosystem and support sustainable practices.
Oysters are a very interesting species. When looking at how they live below the water, oysters start out as floating larvae before eventually settling down on a solid surface, such as rocks. Over time, they create oyster reefs by gathering with other oysters and grow together. Oysters around 500 years ago were mostly average size (adults can grow up to 8 inches, but it is more common for them to be from 3 to 5 inches in the Chesapeake Bay today). They are measured by the size of the shell. Indigenous people had methods of selecting and harvesting oysters by hand, mostly by men or boys, and resulted in picking more consistent sizes. Those tribes living near the Chesapeake Bay practiced sustainability as they collected oysters without harming the habitat. Four supporting factors that contributed to a sustainable oyster population were: water depth and existing technology restricted communities to harvesting close to shore; oysters may have been harvested intensively only at certain times of the year; the density of the human population was drastically lower; and human diets at the time had a mixture of marine and land-dwelling resources. The Algonquian-speaking tribes of the Chesapeake Bay ate oysters regularly, either stewed or roasted, because they were a very valuable source of protein for the Native population, and the size of the oyster meat provided plenty of food to support the villages.[1]
This image depicts Indigenous peoples using various nets to collect marine life for their diets. Oysters would have been collected by hand or by using rake-like tools seen here. Incolarum Virginiae piscandi ratio (The Method of Fishing of the Inhabitants of Virginia), Theodor de Bry after John White’s watercolor paintings, 1590. Courtesy of the Mariners’ Museum Library.
When Europeans arrived in North America, they had limited knowledge of what the land was like or what kind of food supply that this new world offered. When they met Indigenous peoples, they eventually learned how to farm fruits and vegetables and hunt and fish the wildlife, including the Chesapeake Bay oyster. Realizing that oysters were not only an excellent food source but also a way to earn money, colonists used tools to harvest them more easily. Oyster tongs were widely used from the 18th century onward; they had long pieces of wood with metal clamps at the end to scrape the top layer from the reef and pull up bunches of oysters rather than picking them by hand. Oysters quickly became a popular protein in mid-Atlantic diets, especially as oyster tongers competed in a growing market.[2]
Different types of tongs used in the American oyster industry. Image reproduced from von BrantOyster tongs were an easy way to gather oysters quickly and used for generations; the men who used this tool were called oyster tongers. Image from The Daily Press, 1961, Labeled: Delmas Haddaway (left) and Chester (right) use huge rake like thongs to get oysters from Choptank River on Maryland’s Eastern Shore. P0001.001/01-#P1694. Courtesy of the Mariners’ Museum Library.
Boom Time
In the 19th and 20th centuries, oyster harvesting experienced a boom. A new technology, called the dredge, provided quicker and more efficient extraction of oysters from the reefs, especially if used with motorized boats. This piece of equipment would be thrown over the back of a boat and towed while moving. Its purpose was to scrape the top of the oyster reefs and collect large quantities of oysters. However, in doing so, dredges scraped and destroyed the floor of the Chesapeake Bay, which disrupted the ecosystem for the oyster and other organisms that dwelled on the ocean floor. Many communities of oyster tongers, who represented more traditional methods of oyster harvesting, resisted dredging.[3]
Photo by author of a fishing dredge from the Watermen’s Museum in Yorktown, Virginia.
Watermen who continued to use tongs to harvest oysters in the second half of the 19th century were typically smaller and owner-operated compared to their highly industrialized counterparts. The new dredging system outstripped the oyster yield of more traditional tongers. In 1849, watermen harvested 178,000 bushels of oysters; ten years later it jumped to 2.3 million bushels. By 1865, oyster harvesting in Virginia increased to 2 million bushels per year, then doubled to 4 million by 1871. Consequently, the period between 1860 and 1920 saw a massive expansion of the Chesapeake Bay oyster fishery and the introduction of industrialized harvesting that eventually depleted oysters in the bay.[4]
Picture of oyster dredging in the Chesapeake Bay, Maryland. Inscription: “Capt. Wade Muirphy of Tilghman, Md. operating a dredge, legal only during the period from November 1 to March 15, a shorten season than allowed tong men.” AP News features Photo. G- Daily Press, 1961, P0001.001/01-#P1693. Courtesy of the Mariners’ Museum Library.
Increased oyster harvesting from dredging in the 19th and 20th centuries also came with a new way for oysters to be sold to consumers. In the early 1800s canning revolutionized food preservation. Harvested oysters need to be eaten quickly (up to 2 days on ice for safety). However, canned oysters allowed greater commercial distribution beyond the coast and a long shelf life (albeit sacrificing the fresh flavor). The process was simple: canners kept them on ice until they were heated 5 to 7 minutes at 400 degrees. Then, they shucked the oysters once cooled and placed the meat into cans or jars with hot water and salt before sealed and sterilized, preserving it on average for a year. The hub of the Chesapeake Bay commercial oyster canning industry was in Baltimore, Maryland by Edward Wright from Kent County on the Eastern Shore in 1831. Oyster canning improved throughout the years, especially during the 1860s after the Civil War. Canners experimented with new methods that preserved the oysters more efficiently to transport them for sale to different states and countries.[5]
An example of the expanding market for oysters with the introduction of canning. Eldridge Cook, mentored by T.C. Walker and a graduate of the Gloucester Training School, was the owner of Cook’s Seafood Company, a top national seafood processing plant and supplier by the 1950s. He operated the thriving company that distributed oysters like these around the world for over 70 years until 2010. Photo by author. Courtesy of the Watermen’s Museum in Yorktown, Virginia.
How Can We Help Preserve Oyster Reefs?
In the late 1800s, the United States experienced a nationwide conservation movement to preserve its natural resources, including the Chesapeake Bay. Established in 1875, the Virginia Fish Commission (now known as the Virginia Marine Resources Commission) began to push legislation that placed greater restrictions on oyster harvesting. In 1929, the commission appointed oyster inspectors and started to plant shells to rebuild oyster habitats and counter the overharvesting of past decades. Today there are alternative ways to harvest oysters responsibly in the Chesapeake Bay. As dredging is highly destructive, many have opted to use more environmentally friendly cages that help sustain the bay oysters and keep the ecosystem healthy. People now farm oysters by placing cages in the water where the oysters create a “reef” as they grow and flourish with access to natural food sources, like algae, then flip the cages regularly. Below are images of the different types of cages that are common today, including the bottom cage, the Taylor float, and the downunder. These are used all throughout the bay to keep the oyster population alive and healthy, but most importantly, sustain the oyster population.[6]
The most common cage is the bottom cage that is placed on the bottom of the sea floor and can hold up to 300 market-sized oysters. Photo by author of a bottom cage from the Watermen’s Museum in Yorktown, Virginia.The Taylor float drifts on the surface. This type is the base cage for many oyster farms in the bay and in the United States. It holds up to 400 market-size oysters; once full this cage is heavy to lift, so it has an optional lid to help get the oysters out more easily and efficiently. Photo by author of a Taylor float from the Watermen’s Museum in Yorktown, Virginia.A downunder float is typically tied to a dock with rope and hung just under the water level. It can hold up to 150 market-sized oysters and is used for growing and harvesting. The cage got its name because it originated in Australia. Photo by author of a downunder from the Watermen’s Museum in Yorktown, Virginia.
The Chesapeake Bay oyster has been a steadily harvested and eaten seafood for many generations. From the Indigenous peoples’ careful hand-selection harvesting to modern-day sustainable oyster farming, we have learned to extract oysters safely and efficiently while protecting the ecosystem. As of 2020, the number of market-size oysters (larger than three inches) was about 400 million compared to 2018 when it was 300 million. These are significant improvements and proves that with community action and environmental education, positive change happens.[7] We must be careful to protect the Chesapeake Bay oyster so that they can continue to thrive. To learn more about oysters and watermen, visit the Watermen’s Museum in historic Yorktown and the Mariners’ Museum in Newport News, Virginia. Here you will find exhibits with interesting artifacts, marine archaeology, and interactive displays and programs tracing the history of our diverse coast and its people. For more information conservation and how you can help protect the bay, see the Chesapeake Bay Foundation at Homepage – Chesapeake Bay Foundation (cbf.org).
Acknowledgements
This exhibit was a service-learning project with the Watermen’s Museum in Yorktown and the Mariners’ Museum in Newport News in partnership with the Public History Center and the Department of History at Christopher Newport University. We would like to give special thanks to Mike Steen, the Director of Education at Watermen’s, for assisting Parker with this exhibit, providing his expertise on the Chesapeake Bay, and acting as a peer reviewer. We would also like to thank the Mariners’ Museum Library for access to their extensive digital collection of photographs on watermen.
About the Author
Parker Watson graduated from Christopher Newport University with a B.A. in history and a minor in museum studies, graduating with Service Distinction. During his time at CNU, Parker completed an internship with Great Bridge Battlefield and Waterways Park in Chesapeake. He is currently working as a museum technician at the Hampton University Museum while pursuing a MA in museum studies.
[2] Juliana M. Harding, Roger Mann, and Melissa J. Southworth, “Shell Length-at-age Relationships in James River, Virginia, Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) Collected Four Centuries Apart,” Journal of Shellfish Research 27(5), (1 December 2008), 1109-1115. https://doi.org/10.2983/0730-8000-27.5.1109
[3] Bradford Botwick and Debra A. McClane, “Landscapes of Resistance: A View of the Nineteenth-Century Chesapeake Bay Oyster Fishery.” Historical Archaeology 39, no. 3 (2005): 94–112.
[5] William S. Dudley, Maritime Maryland: A History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010,), 110-111; N. D. Jarvis, “Curing and Canning of Fishery Products: A History.” Marine Fisheries Review 50, no. 4 (1988): 180-185; “Selecting, Preparing and Canning Meat.” National Center for Home Food Preservation | How Do I? Can Meats. Accessed April 7, 2023. https://nchfp.uga.edu/how/can_05/oysters.html.
By Lauren Tamayo, B.A. in History, Christopher Newport University and Sheri Shuck-Hall, Ph.D., Professor of History, Christopher Newport University
In the early settlement of present-day Chesapeake, Virginia, Indigenous people and later European colonists used the surrounding waterways to survive and prosper. Its strategic location factored into the area’s major role at the start of the American Revolution. On November 7, 1775, near Norfolk, John Murray, Earl of Dunmore and Royal Governor of Virginia, emancipated enslaved Africans and indentured servants if they joined the British cause against the rebellious Virginians. Many escaped slaves ultimately aided Dunmore and the British Army in the attempted siege of Great Bridge on the Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River. The ensuing battle on December 9, 1775, led to a consequential victory for the Patriots, providing a momentum to the cause for independence. Why was Great Bridge such an important place for the British and colonists in Virginia? This exhibit will explore the significance of the waterways of Hampton Roads, transportation in the Revolutionary Era, and everyday life along the Elizabeth River.[1]
Traveling by boat was a daily occurrence for the locals living in and around the Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River, named after the daughter of King James I (1566-1625) by English colonists. During the early and mid-1700s, the South relied heavily on agriculture and the sale of raw materials. The area between present-day upper North Carolina and southern Virginia was covered in marshlands and waterways that prevented direct travel to port cities. In order to transport many of the goods and materials produced in these regions to high commerce areas, it was almost a necessity to travel by boat. These passageways would be the foundation to the development of Hampton Roads, Virginia and the continuous use of the surrounding waterways.[2]
The essential use of water transportation is what led to the region being known as Hampton Roads shortly after the founding of Virginia. Likely named after the 3rd Earl of Southampton, Henry Wriothesley–a founding member of the Virginia Company of London–Hampton Roads referred not to roads, but to the many rivers, streams, and other bodies of water found throughout the area. Colonists often referred to water routes as roads. Hampton Roads constituted the area or channel connecting the Elizabeth, James, and Nansemond Rivers with the Chesapeake Bay; today Hampton Roads includes the major cities and counties that surround these waters. People across greater Virginia and North Carolina used this area as a method of transportation for raw materials and agriculture to reach the largest port in Hampton Roads, located in present-day Port Norfolk.[3]
18th Century Ships in Hampton Roads
In Great Bridge and the surrounding areas of Hampton Roads, there were four main types of ships used to transport people and goods. The most common of these boats was the bateau; however, schooners, row galleys, and brigs could be found in deeper waters. A bateau was a flat bottomed, double-ended boat that was frequently used in the Southern colonies during the 1700s. The name bateau originates from the French word for boat and was habitually used in the region due to the ease of crafting and its ability to carry substantial amounts of cargo. Bateaux often had cloth coverings, and although the styles varied, the most common was a round, wagon style cover that enclosed a portion of the boat. Bateaux also easily handled shallow waters, which was especially useful on the Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River.[4]
Colonists used schooners in the nearby waters of the Elizabeth River for their narrow build and the shallowness of the hull. Due to their slimmer frame, schooners were less common for large amounts of cargo. Yet the boats offered speedier travel for small transports. Many schooners had multiple posts and large sails that also aided in the speed of the ship during periods of breeze; when not in use, shipmen rolled up the sails. Fishermen and coasters sailing to inland waters and at sea heavily used schooners as they were reliable in a variety of weather conditions.[5]
In comparison, row galleys were large ships that were long and narrow much like schooners; however, they were much larger and had a deep hull. Often used during the American Revolution, these boats supported more weight and often carried swivel guns and other artillery for the war effort. Row galleys frequented the surrounding waters of Hampton Roads but were less common within Great Bridge due to the shallow waters of the Elizabeth River.[6]
“Watercolor depicting the American line of battle before the 1776 Battle of Valcour Island,” featuring some row galleys powered by oars. National Archives of Canada.
One of the most efficient and popular sailing ships in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was the brig. It was a larger ship and usually had two main sails. The appeal of this boat came from its ability to transport copious amounts of cargo. These ships also differed from the others in that they were square-rigged on both ends of the mast. While the hulls of these ships were not shallow enough to enter the waters of Great Bridge, brigs could be seen in the Chesapeake Bay and other deeper waters of Hampton Roads. Although not usually built in the colonies, these ships were commonly found in colonial waters during the 1700s and often used by the British.[7]
“First official salute to the American flag on board an American warship in a foreign port, 16 November 1776.” Painting by Phillips Melville of the Continental Brig Andrew Doria receiving a salute from the Dutch fort at St. Eustatius, West Indies, 16 November 1776. Courtesy of the U.S. Navy Art Collection, Washington, D.C.
Life Along the Intracoastal Waterway
In colonial Virginia, Bridge Town, later known as Great Bridge, was a prime location because of its easy access to the waterways that acted as highways for people and goods. Due to the constant need for transportations routes, many locals used Great Bridge as a passage from North Carolina to the port city of Norfolk.[8] The Tidewater economy relied heavily on the planting and harvesting of tobacco as a means of income; many Virginians enslaved Africans and benefited financially from this unfree labor. The colonists who lived near Great Bridge were mostly small farmers because of the sandy soil that was less conducive for large plantations. The grain industry within the colonies was also gaining momentum. The Chesapeake area was a prime exporter of wheat, as well as the front runner for Indian corn. The massive reliance on agricultural development meant that many people around Great Bridge were either farmers or were connected to the agriculture industry.[9]
Everyday life within Great Bridge revolved around the family. During this time most of the houses were smaller, one-levels built in the colonial style. These houses were often positioned along the riverbanks to provide access to the Elizabeth River and therefore easy transport of goods and services. Many of the rooms within the house were multipurpose and a majority contained the means to be turned into a bedroom to adjust to large families as well as travelers. The Three Tun Tavern located in Great Bridge provided boarding for the night as many people passing through needed food and lodging on their way to the Port of Norfolk.[10]
Throughout the eighteenth century, the influence of the waterways continued to shape the lifestyles and environment of the Chesapeake region. Between 1728 and 1729, Colonel William Byrd II, a notorious plantation owner, surveyed the border between Virginia and North Carolina, identifying the large marshlands known as the Great Dismal Swamp. After his survey was completed, Byrd wrote a petition to the king requesting the approval to drain the swamp and to create fertile land for the ever-growing agricultural production, mostly using slave labor. [11]
After Byrd’s survey, many Virginians argued for the creation of a canal that linked the Tidewater region and Chesapeake Bay to northeastern North Carolina, known as the Albemarle region. However, it would not be until 1793, when both Virginia and North Carolina state governments authorized the project, that the Dismal Swamp Company began construction of a canal. Despite Byrd’s initial thought that the project would be easy to complete, it took enslaved Africans twelve grueling years of digging the canal by hand to finish it. When it was completed in 1805, the six-foot deep and 15-foot-wide canal spanned the length of twenty-one miles and contained seven locks.[12]
Colonists also wanted a canal that would ease the journey to and from the Atlantic Ocean by means of connecting Albemarle Sound and the Chesapeake Bay. By linking these two waterways it would allow for faster and safer traveling. The idea for the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal was conceived in the early 1700s, but it would not become a reality until well after the American Revolution. The construction began in 1855 by using steam dredges. Completed four years later in 1859, the canal measured the width of forty feet with a depth of six feet that allowed for large scale vessels including row galleys and brigs. Within the canal there were two cuts and one lock—what is known today as the Great Bridge Locks.[13]
In 1913, the United States government purchased the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal in order to create a continuous inland waterway route. Once under the control of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, improvements to the canal began and the usage toll ceased. This transition created new competition for the Dismal Swamp Canal and led to larger commercial ships using the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal; smaller recreational boats continued to use the Dismal Swamp Canal as their main passage. Ultimately the United States purchased the Dismal Swamp Canal in 1929. Both canals continue to be used today. The Great Bridge Locks provide passage for around nine thousand vessels a year, while the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal is responsible for the transportation of over one million tons of cargo each year.[14]
Waterways continue to play a significant role in Hampton Roads, and all over the world. To learn more about the history of Hampton Roads and its waterways, as well as the Battle of Great Bridge in the American Revolution, please stop by the Great Bridge Battlefield and Waterways Museum located in Chesapeake, Virginia. The museum opened to the public on June 19th, 2020, and has many new exhibits, special events, and educational programs for the public to explore and enjoy.
We would like to give special thanks to Elizabeth Goodwin, the Executive Director of the Great Bridge Battlefield & Waterways History Foundation, who sponsored Lauren’s internship in the summer of 2022. We are very grateful that she provided her time and expertise on this research project, and we thank her for her exceptional mentorship of Lauren.
About the Author
Lauren Tamayo is a history major and museum studies minor at Christopher Newport University (Class of 2023). She completed a 140-hour service-learning internship at Great Bridge Battlefield & Waterways Museum during summer semester 2022, where she gained invaluable skills in many facets of museum work–from marketing and advertising to cataloging artifacts and creating educational packets. After she graduates, she plans to pursue a career in public history.
Notes
[1] Harry M. Ward, The American Revolution: Nationhood Achieved, 1763-1788 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995), 70-71.
[2] Edwin L. Combs, “Trading in Lubberland: Maritime Commerce in Colonial North Carolina.” The North Carolina Historical Review 80, no. 1 (2003): 1–3. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23522582.
[3] Hampton Roads includes the following cities and counties: Virginia Beach; Norfolk; Chesapeake; Newport News; Hampton; Portsmouth; Suffolk; Williamsburg; Poquoson; Franklin; James City County; York County; Gloucester County; Isle of Wight County; Currituck County, NC; Gates County, NC; Mathews County; Southampton County; Camden County; and Surry County. Tim McGlown, “What’s in a Name?” The Virginian Pilot, 6 June 2008; Peter Crawford Stewart, “The Commercial History of Hampton Roads, Virginia, 1815-1860.” Order No. 6803127, (University of Virginia, 1967), 2-4.
[4] John Fitzhugh Millar, American Ships of the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods. (New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1978), 293.
[5] John Fitzhugh Millar, American Ships of the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods. (New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1978), 155-157.
[6] Howard I. Chapelle, The History of American Sailing Ships. (New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1935), 54-55.
[7] Howard I. Chapelle, The History of American Sailing Ships. (New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1935), 15-17.
[8] Oscar Theodore Barck and Hugh Talmage Lefler, Colonial America. (New York, NY: The Macmillan Company, 1958), 7-9.
[9] William H. Siener, “Charles Yates, the Grain Trade, and Economic Development in Fredericksburg, Virginia, 1750-1810,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 93, no. 4 (1985): 409–26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4248842.
[10]Julia Cherry Spruill, Women’s Life & Work in the Southern Colonies. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1972, 8-12.
[11] Charles Royster, The Fabulous History of the Dismal Swamp Company: A Story of George Washington’s Times. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999, 1-20.
[12] To this day the Dismal Swamp Canal is used by people for a variety of purposes, but only contains two of the original seven locks. Marcus P. Nevius, City of Refuge: Slavery and Petit Marronage in the Great Dismal Swamp, 1763-1856. (Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press, 2020), 5-6.
[13] Alexander Crosby Brown, Juniper Waterway – A History of the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal. (Norfolk: Norfolk County Historical Society, 1981). Pamphlet from the Wallace Room Collection, Great Bridge Battlefield and Waterways Museum. Chesapeake, Virginia.
[14] Wall text, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Protecting a Vital Resource, M2, Great Bridge Battlefield and Waterways Museum, Chesapeake, VA.
